Introduction to Physiology and Pharmacology

Introduction to Physiology and Pharmacology The aim of this experiment is to prepare a sample of guinea pig ileum and to determine the contractile dose response curve to acetylcholine and dose response curve to carbachol and biological variation. Abstract In this experiment pharmacological effect of acetylcholine and carbachol are studied by using an isolated tissue preparation, which is a guinea pig ileum. The contractile property of the smooth muscle is used for the straightforward measurement of the force it produces as an indication of effect. The ileum is a part of the intestines among the pyloric sphincter and colon. The ileum has a tube of muscle and epithelial layers, innervated by bundles of fibres. The muscle layers have inherited contractility. The contractility is transformed by the nervous inputs in the myenteric plexuses. In the myenteric plexuses the ganglia linking pre and post ganglionic neurons with acetylcholine act to transmit among them. The muscle layer makes the tissue shorter and pulls the tube together. So the muscle lengthens the tissue little bit. Acetylcholine can stimulate the contraction when it is released from the enteric nerve terminals onto the muscle layers. In the enteric nervous system are the muscarinic g-protein coupled receptors. Those receptors mediate a biological response an acetylcholine agonist. The cells of the muscle form gap junctions with each other and so are electrically coupled, allowing for smooth coordinated contractions that underlie peristalsis. The ileum was kept continually in the oxygenated Tyrodes solution. The temperature of Tyrode solution was maintained at 32 Celsius. The contraction or relaxation of the piece of tissue was attached to an isotonic transducer. An instrument, which converted changes into electrical current and that, was used to drive a pen recorder. Method: For the second experiment the time was reduced to 4 minutes from 8 minutes. Description of the results Acetylcholine Average % Max Response Dose Response Height Percentage Maximum Response Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 A 0.00000001 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 B 0.00000003 0.00 1.00 45.00 0.00 0.87 10.47 3.78 C 0.00000010 1.00 10.00 85.00 1.00 8.70 19.77 9.82 D 0.00000030 3.50 115.00 220.00 3.50 100.00 51.16 51.55 E 0.00000100 100.00 110.00 430.00 100.00 95.65 100.00 98.55 F 0.00000300 80.00 100.00 380.00 80.00 86.96 88.37 85.11 Carbachol Average % Max Response Dose Response Height Percentage Maximum Response Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 A 0.00000001 40.00 20.00 0.00 3.28 3.23 0.00 2.17 B 0.00000003 20.00 20.00 0.00 1.64 3.23 0.00 2.15 C 0.00000010 240.00 100.00 5.00 19.67 16.13 5.26 13.69 D 0.00000030 280.00 170.00 40.00 22.95 27.42 42.11 30.83 E 0.00000100 560.00 620.00 80.00 45.90 100.00 84.21 76.70 F 0.00000300 1220.00 540.00 95.00 100.00 87.10 100.00 95.70 Discussion A more sophisticated organ bath could be used as the volume of the bath was filled visually. If it had a mark then the filled amount would be the same and no error would occur. Questions: The ileum is innervated by the enteric, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The Myenteric (Auerbachs) and submucosal (Meissners plexuses) are the two plexuses of the enteric nervous system. The agonists Histamine and ATP cause peristaltis in the gut. (Morphin, cannabis drugs) A vehicle is a pharmaceutical ingredient (usually a liquid) used a medium for dissolving the active drug in a mass suitable for its administration. The transporting agent is used to increase the bulk or decrease the concentration of a mixture. Acetylcholine esterase cannot easily metabolise carbachol. Carbachol is a choline ester and does not well absorb in the gastrointestinal tract. It does not cross the blood brain barrier. Carbachol is a drug that binds and activates the acetylcholine receptor. It is classified as a cholinergic agonist. Applications are for ophthalmic purpose, such as treating glaucoma or for use during ophthalmic surgeries. It stimulates bladder emptying and for chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Postradiation nausea and vomiting. Yes, the dose range for each agonist is sufficient to obtain a complete dose response curve. Both agonists reached a maximum response. EC50 11 No difference 12 13 14 15 Antiemetic can either reduce nausea or stop people from throwing up. Different drugs types and different strength are in use. The simplest indication is and simple motion sickness and to prevent nausea or for nausea. They antagonize the following receptors : 1-peripheral 5-HT3 receptor blockade on intestinal vagal afferents; 2-central5-HT3 receptor blockade in the vomiting center and chemo trigger zone. Use: because of the 5HT3 receptor antagonists in the chemotherapy it is inducing vomiting. Conclusion: Using tissues helps to overcome some problems. If a whole guinea pig is used applying orally a drug, it may complicate the interpretation of the observations. As a tissue is used in this experiment the following factors, such as absorption from the gut and its distribution throughout the body do not have to be considered when the response of a piece of isolated tissue is controlled. Agonists produce a biological response when applied to a tissue. From this experiment practically I gained that the produced size of response by an agonist depends on the dose. Each drug has a threshold dose. Under this dose no response can be spotted. Increasing the application of the drug over the threshold dose increases the response until it reaches a maximum value. Apart from the increased dose, the response will not increase. Using the term concentration made the comparison between the experiments easier. All the tissues from an animal (in this case guinea pig) may possibly response different to given drugs and make a respond from an amount of different tissues. The response from the guinea pig to acetylcholine and carbachol induced by fixed concentration different levels due to the biological variation.

Importance of a Warm Up Essay

A warm up helps to prepare the body for the physical exertion to come. It gently raises your pulse rate and therefore, your cardiac output increases and also your rate of ventilation. Your vasomotor centre makes sure that more blood is being distributed to the working muscles. This combined affect is to increase the amount of oxygen that is delivered to the muscle cells. This helps to reduce the oxygen deficit when you start carrying out the actual activity. A Warm up is very important as it helps to reduce the possible chances of injury. It raises your body temperature in your muscles as there is an increase in the blood flow which raises your body temperature in your muscles, making them more responsive. The elasticity of muscle tissue is increased and more oxygen can be carried to the working muscles. This will help to prepare the body for the activity to come. Throughout a warm up routine, it consists of stretching exercises and this increases your flexibility and so directly reduces the risk of injury. The reason for this is that; a muscle or tendon group with a greater range of motion will be less likely to experience tears when used actively. Stretching also helps to improve recovery and may enhance the participant’s performance. Additionally, increased flexibility of the neck, shoulders and upper back may improve respiratory function. The nervous system becomes stimulated which makes sure you more alert and aware and therefore it gets you psychologically prepared. This will help to increase your levels of motivation and determination to carry out your dance sessions. The benefit of a warm up is that the muscles torn most frequently from the neglect of a warm up are the antagonists (such as the hamstrings- Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, biceps femoris) to the strong contracting muscles (such as the Quadriceps- Vastus medialis, Vastus lateralis, Vastus intermedius, rectus femoris). Cold antagonistic muscles relax slowly when the agonists contract, therefore free movement and accurate co-ordination is retarded. At the same time, the force of the contraction of the agonists and the momentum of the moving part exert a great strain on the unyielding antagonists. Without a warm up, this may lead to the tearing of the muscle fibers or the tendons. Stretching exercises I will stretch, moving a joint to just beyond its point of resistance. Flexibility is limited by the joint itself, ligaments and tendons acting upon it. I cannot change the bony structures or the type of joint, but I can stretch the soft tissue surrounding the joint. Neck (Sternocleidomastoid and scalenes) * Turn head to the left, then to the right. * Look up and then down. * 5 Neck rolls to the right and then 5 neck rolls to the left. * Shoulders, back and arms * I will Circle arms 10 times forward, 10 times backward and then rotate arms alternating. This will mobilise my shoulder joint. * I will Stretch my Trapezius by pulling one arm that is kept straight across the chest with your other arm supporting it in its position. This is a horizontal flexion movement. * I will stretch my triceps brachii by flexing my elbow and placing my hand behind my head on by back and my other hand puts pressure on the flexed elbow joint. Wrists and fingers * I will rotate my wrist joints, clap my hands together rapidly and then bend and mobilise my fingers. Hips * I will mobilise my hip joint by placing my hands on my hips and doing 5 hip rotations to the left and then 5 to right. Rotate my hips by raising my leg (with a bent knee so it is at 90 degrees to my body) then I will turn my leg outwards to the side of my body. Spine * I will stretch my vertebral column by crouching down onto my knees and placing my hands on the floor reaching as far as I can. Legs * I will Stretch the Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Intermedials, Vastus Medialis and Rectus Femoris by pulling the ankle with your hand on the same side of the body keeping the knees together while maintaining the correct spine alignment. My hips should be square (I will make sure they do not twist.) If I find it difficult to keep my balance I will hold onto my ear with my other hand and focus. * I will stretch the Semitendinosus, Biceps Femoris and Semi Membranosus by placing one foot in front of the other; bend your back knee while keeping my front leg straight. Raise the hips and lean your body slightly over. After holding this stretch for 10-15 seconds, I will slowly raise the toes of my front foot so that they point towards the ceiling (I will keep my heel firmly on the ground.) Doing this will produce a full stretch down the back of the leg, i.e. Semitendinosus, Biceps Femoris, Semi Membranosus and Gastrocnemius. * I will move my legs apart (wide stance), I will then bend forwards with my hands flat to floor. * Right foot behind left at 90 degrees right leg flexed, left leg straight, bend forward to left foot. Left foot behind left at 90 degrees left leg flexed, right leg straight, bend forward to right foot. * To stretch the Adductors Longus, Brevis and Magnus both feet will be flat on the floor and facing forward. I will lean over to one side keeping the other leg straight, bend the knee at the side you are leaning over to increase the intensity of the stretch. * To stretch my Gastrocnemius I will put one foot in front of the other and bend you’re your front knee. The back leg will be kept straight and the rear heel will be kept firmly on the floor throughout the stretch. This stretch is often carried out against a wall. The Gastrocnemius is stretched by flexing your elbows and moving your body weight forward. Stretch forward until you feel a gentle pull in the lower leg. * To stretch the Soleus, the front knee is bent and is pushed towards the ground, while staying over and just in front of the foot. A gentle pull should be felt in the lower one third of the leg. The knee can then be directed medially and laterally to stretch different areas. Ankles * To mobilise my ankle joint I will move the sole of the foot inwards (inversion) and then turn it outwards (eversion). * I will then move the foot downwards (away from the tibia) which is known as plantar flexion and then I will move it upwards (towards the tibia) and this is known as dorsi flexion. This mobilises the Tibialis Anterior, Gastrocnemius and Soleus.

Modern Definition of Rule of Law

Introduction to the Rule of Law & the modern definition. Rule of Law in the layman perspective is the principle that nobody is above the law and that every man’s act is subject to the law. The law referred, in our context, is the Malaysian Constitution which embodies the definition, expressly in many of its provisions. The constitution has the absolute power as against the arbitrariness and discretionary power of the government. This concept is commonly practiced in democratic countries.Rule of Law and Rule by Law should be distinguished as the latter is merely a government’s tool for the purpose of ruling and governing only. It is not a good approach as compared to the Rule of Law because law is made by the people, for the people. The concept used under Rule by Law could lead to abuse of power and unfairness especially in the context of human rights. The countries practicing Rule by Law are mostly the autocratic countries where the law is followed because they are forced to, not because they respect the supremacy of the law.According to De Smith, the concept of Rule of Law is one of open texture with wide range of interpretation, or in other words, flexible. Dicey propounded 3 principles of Rule of law in his writings, ‘Law of the Constitution’. However Dicey’s ideas are no longer in use as modern democratic society has emerged. It is only a fashion now to insert Dicey’s to retain the basic values of Rule of Law but it must be interpreted according to our modern needs of society. Dicey’s ideas on ROL includes that; – 1) Absolute supremacy of regular law. ) Equality before the law 3) The Rule of Law includes the results of judicial decisions determining the rights of private persons. Internationally, the Rule of Law was even stated in the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948; where it was laid in the third paragraph that if the government does not want the people to revo lt as their last resort to overcome tyranny by government, then it is important for the fundamental liberties of the people to be defended. The way to defend their liberties is through the Rule of Law. The UDHR has 30 articles which upholds human rights.An international meeting to discuss and make declaration on the fundamental principle of rule of law was held in 1959 named the International Commission of Jurists(ICJ). The ICJ is the modern revelation of Rule of Law that fits the present circumstances. They declared that the rule of law implies certain rights and freedom to create a conducive social, economic, education and cultural norms to achieve human dignity. Joseph Raz, in his writing, â€Å"Rule of Law & It’s Virtues† had outlined a set of characteristics, a total number of 13 virtues of rule of law.The most basic aspect is that the people must be protected by the rule of law, and nothing can happen without the sanction and permission of the law. Others inc lude that the law must be prospective rather than retrospective; the law must be stable and certain and not changeable; the independence of judiciary has to be assured; the law must be fair, just and reasonable; the people should have the access to the courts; principles of natural justice concerning the right to be heard and the judge must not be bias should be observed and many other important characteristics.All 13 virtues should be complied and applied to make sure that the rule of law exists in a country practicing it. Ingredients of The Federal Constitution The Rule of Law is interrelated with the principles of human’s rights and dignity and these can be seen in our own Federal Constitution. Part II of the Federal Constitution enumerates a number of fundamental liberties which devotes 9 articles altogether. Few are: 1)Liberty of the person 2)Protection against retrospective criminal laws and repeated trials 3)Equality 4)Freedom of speech, assembly, association 5) Freedo m of religion and few more.The Parliament has made extensive use of emergency powers, sanctioned by the Constitution. Part XI with regards to emergency powers must be read together with the Fundamental Liberties. By Article 149, it permits the suspension of the Fundamental Liberties, since it validates any legislation otherwise outside the legislative power of Parliament. The Proclamation of Emergency provided in Article 150 permits Parliament and YdPA to override all provisions of the Constitution. This is not to say rule of law is not stable, but that the regular law operates alongside a system of emergency law which is much more draconian.An example is the powers of preventive detention, or International Security Act, which will be discussed further. Constitutionalism Crisis: International Security Act The International Security Act or more commonly known as ISA is an old and inhumane law which is against with the principle of Rule of Law. ISA is a cruel and harsh law and has alw ays been an issue which has yet to be solved in satisfaction. Proposals for the ISA to be reviewed and subsequently, be abolished has been made since Tun Mahathir and Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi’s times as Prime Minister, and once again, now made by our present Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Razak.It has been 50 years since the ISA came into force but the government has still yet to take any actions in viewing this problem. The ISA made it seems as though the Rule of Law does not exist in Malaysia or less effective. The ISA is a preventive detention law that allows the force to detain a person without trial or criminal charges under lawful circumstances and he will be detained by the police for up to a maximum period of 60 days or the full period. It seems like that the ISA either does not understand or does not believe in the Rule of Law or the Human Rights.Under an ordinary law, every person has his own rights and chance to stand trial if he has committed an offence. When I SA first came into force in 1960, it was made based on the promised made by our first Prime Minister that the law will be used rationally and only against government’s enemies, which was then the communists. Nowadays ISA is used on reasons to deal problems relating sensitive issues like conflicts in a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, multi-cultural society. The essence of ISA is to allow detention without trial which goes against the right of a person to fair hearing.Therefore, does this means that the ISA is against the human rights? Accordingly, is it contrary to the rule of law and thus does the principle rule of law exist in our country? In answering the first question, detention without trial is a blatant act and against citizen’s rights. The ISA reflects that the State has failed to uphold its responsibility this right. The judiciary is excluded from ensuring that those detained under ISA are treated according with the human rights. Not a person should be held in d etention without fair trial because it violates the human rights.Human rights and Rule of law are interconnected and so if ISA is contrary to human rights then it acts the same to the rule of law. This makes us question whether the rule of law still does exist in Malaysia. Any country subscribing to the rule of law, will never allow the abuse of power to detain a person without trial. This draconian legislation should be reviewed and repealed if the government still has the intention in making the rule of law as one of the general principles of the constitution. 1988 Constitutional Crisis Other constitutional crisis relating the rule of law follows the withdrawal of Tun Salleh Abas as a judge.This case was also known the 1988 Constitutional Crisis. In 1988, Tun Salleh Abas was brought before a tribunal on grounds of bias as a judge. The Prime Minister then, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohammad, explained that he took an action against Tun Salleh under Article 125 of the constitution, on ground s of his behavior and being unable to perform his function as the Lord President. The tribunal concluded that â€Å"the respondent has been guilty of not only ‘misbehavious’, but also misconduct which falls within the ambit of ‘other cause’ in article 125, which renders him unfit to discharge properly the functions of his office†.The 1988 Constitutional Crisis is related to Joseph Raz’s minimum standards on rule of law. Joseph Raz included one of the virtues (among others as mentioned earlier) that the natural justice should be reviewed. The natural justice said concerned; i)the right to be heard â€Å"audi altera partem† and ii)a judge must not be bias â€Å"nemo judex in cause sua†. The latter part has a deep connection to what discussed in the suspension of Tun Salleh Abas. Stephen Kalong Ningkan (1966)In 1966, Stephen Kalong Ningkan was dismissed from being the Chief Minister when the State Governor showed a letter signed by 21 members of assembly saying that they longer had no confidence in him to continue his duty. He was asked to resign himself which he refused to do so. He alleged that the letter did not tantamount to a vote of no-confidence. He was then dismissed by the Head of State by publishing a declaration in the Gazette that Stephen Kalong Ningkan had ceased to hold the office of Chief Minister. However his dismissal was an unconstitutional one.It was held by the court that the law under Sarawak Constitution, a Chief Minister can only vacate his office by his resignation and not by dismissal. There were no authorities stating that the Head of State has the power to dismiss a Chief Minister. Therefore looking through a rule of law’s view, it could be said that the unlawful dismissal of Stephen Kalong Ningkan by the Head of State was contrary to the principles of Rule of Law. Perak Crisis (2009) The constitutional crisis which happened in Perak is similar to what happened in 1966 in the case of Stephen Kalong Ningkan.The crisis began in February 2009 when four assemblymen of Pakatan Rakyat withdrew from the party. Pakatan Rakyat was then the ruling party in Perak, and their withdrawal from the party resulted a loss of majority representatives. Nasaruddin Hashim, was the Chief Minister of Perak before the crisis started was one of the assemblymen whom cross-floored Pakatan Rakyat. The consequence was that the Sultan of Perak, used his discretion under Art 18(2)(b) of the State Constitution, and commanded Mohammad Nizar Jamaluddin to dismiss himself from the position of First Minister. The Sultan of Perak then appointed Dr.Zambry Abdul Kadir from Barisan Nasional to fill in the vacant position and be the next Chief Minister. Nizar claimed that there should be a fair free election since this country practices democracy, and for that announced he refused to resign and therefore, the appointment of Dr. Zambry was null and void. The High Court held that the dismissal and appointment made by the Sultan of Perak was unlawful and an unconstitutional one and that Nizar has always been the rightful head of government. The Court of Appeal however held that the action taken by the Sultan was legally valid and certainly followed the State Constitution.According to the Perak Constitution, the Sultan has two options in settling a conflict of lost confidence; which is either to dissolve the state assembly or appoint a new Chief Minister. The Sultan in this case did the latter. Such discretion is a Royal Prerogative. The Sultan is not subject to recommendation or approval of any other person while making the new appointment of Chief Minister. The difference between the Perak Crisis and Stephen Kalong Ningkan case is, the Perak Constitution has no exact statement of means of vote of confidence, which makes the action taken by the Sultan is constitutional and valid while the appointment of Dr.Zambry is also valid and Mohd Nizar must tender resignation. This woul d also mean that it follows the definition of Rule of Law on absolute supremacy of the law on grounds the dismissal was lawful. Conclusion With all the definitions and constitutional crisis discussed, it all comes down to one question; to what extent does Rule of Law exists in Malaysia? It is with no doubt that our country is a democratic country which is against arbitrariness and upholds the supremacy of our constitution. However with constitutional crisis that has happened, this shows that the Rule of Law xists merely on the surface of it. Our judges need to be prepared to enter the fray in the struggle of persevering the human rights and fundamental liberties. Only then we can say Malaysia is grounded on Rule of Law. Without justice, the democracy we practiced would mean nothing but just a concept. There is a need for all Malaysians to understand and appreciate the importance of the rule of law and to be vigilant that it prevails in this country. Without the rule of law, there ca n be no justice.

Christmas Eve Essays - Temperature Control, Switches, Thermostat

Christmas Eve Essays - Temperature Control, Switches, Thermostat Christmas Eve Jenny Leigh Parker 12/16/98 It was Four o Clock P.M. on December the twenty fourth. The grandfather clock ticked away the hours. It seemed like three hours had gone by. Then, the clock said that it had only been fifteen minutes. I had to do something to help the time pass. I thought that a nice long nap would make the day go faster. My sister wanted to join me. I laid there listening to my sister snore , which made me so upset. How could she possibly fall asleep so fast, plus her obnoxious snoring kept me awake. Finally, I fell asleep, but only for about ten minutes. I woke up to the aroma of my moms famous banana cream pie. I heard the garage door open, and my dads rip roaring Bonneville pulled into the garage. I was so afraid. My dad has this phobia of having a cold house. (In his early years, the house he grew up in, only had one fireplace, and he slept on the other side of the house. He would wake up with icicle toes and be numb all over his body. He could see the air condensation appearing in front of him). After that, he has always had our house scorching hot. He usually has our house's thermostats to about ninety nine degrees. I'll bet I could roast an egg on top of my head. I had also just gotten it to the perfect temperature for the rest of the family. As I expected, the first thing he did when he walked in the door was head straight for the thermostats, and to turn those suckers up until they were ready to explode. My dad knows that I am the only one in the household that can adjust the temperature. So, there was no way I could ever get away with a stunt like that. The next thing I heard was the ceiling fans starting to turn. I have an upstairs bedroom, so, all the excess heat comes into my room. I was beginning to feel the heat creep upstairs. I knew I was a goner. I had a plan, I would step outside and sit in a snowbank for awhile, then inside, maybe the heat wouldn't bother me. I stepped outside. The coldness struck me like a thousand knives. The temperature was below zero. It was just about the right temperature to make my plan work. I was walking through snowflakes and the cold wind was blowing in my face. I plopped down in the white snow. I could feel that my body was soaked. I was extremely cold. I thought that for sure I was frostbitten through my toes. I was determined not to leave until I knew for sure I was freezing from top to bottom. I stepped inside, only to find that I was beginning to break into a sweat. My plan was unsuccessful. I went upstairs, changed out of my itchy, scratchy, turtleneck, fuzzy fluffy, sweater and corduroy slacks. Then, slipped into a sleeveless shirt and pair of denim shorts. That was the way to go as long I stayed in the house the rest of the night. After all the battles with heat, we had finally came to a mutual agreement. I stepped downstairs and first thing I smelled was the pine from our Christmas tree. That is the best smell. I love the outdoors. I then realized that it wasn't the tree I was smelling. It was my mom's pine scented candles that she had been burning. The family dinner was absolutely delicious. I love all the different smells from a home cooked meal. What delight that brings to me. It has been a tradition of mine for a couple of years, to wear myself out on Christmas Eve and do gymnastics. I ended up doing fifty cartwheels on each side. Seventy five back walkovers, twenty five front walkovers, and one hundred backhand springs. Keep in mind, I had just eaten a huge meal. I was ready to pass out. I felt so sick, out of breath and exhausted. I fell asleep pretty quick. Christmas season is my favorite time of the year because of all the different smells, feelings,

chad essays

chad essays The Republic of Chad is located roughly in the north central part of Africa. The total populationas of 2002 consists of 8.14 million people. You can say that the country somewhat recently gained independence in 1960. Chad still seems to be coming out of over 30 years of civil war and foreign intervention though. The economy has had its ups and downs. It has had brief periods of growth followed by periods of very sharp decline. It has been said that the lack of infrastructure and the geographic remoteness has posed as impediments in the economic growth of Chad. In 1995 the government established a three-year economic reform program, which has seem to bring about positive results. Geographic, linguistic diversity, and religious differences have presented serious obstacles in building Chads economy. The diverse contribution of environments has played a major role in the development of an array of different life-styles and social structures. In the north, where the Sahara Desert lies, mostly nomadic societies tend to live. In the center are the semi-nomadic societies. Finally, the south consists mainly of agricultural communities. Chad also contains three of the four main African languages, which is contained within its borders. It can be said that the people of Chad do not many share many extensive cultural traits. Chad possesses three main types of religion, which would be Islam, Christianity, and the supporters of traditional African religions. These different lifestyles and religious barriers seem to intensify the ethnic divisions that occur amongst the people of Chad. Another challenge in the midst of Chads endless list of problems is lies between education and health care. When referring to the Word Development Indicators, illiteracy rate in 2002 among females was 62.5% and for males 24.2%. Civil war is one of the main causes in hindering primary school education in Chad. Civil war seemed to have begun back in 1960 w...

Where Do Ideas Come From Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Where Do Ideas Come From - Essay Example Without ideas, there are basically no new things to speak of. Apparently, novelties are only possible because there were ideas that came first and when realized resulted in these new things. However, while it is easy to conclude that so many things in this world came from ideas, from the mental constructs of man, the issue of where do ideas come from remain to this day an unresolved issue for some because of contrasting perspectives. One camp has a metaphysical perspective, which insists that ideas are simply the imaginations of the human mind that is not in any way related to the physical or objective conditions. Another camp has a religious or supernatural point of view on the matter; it maintains that ideas come from superior or divine beings and planted in man’s mind in the form of inspiration. The third camp, however, bases its argument on more scientific grounds; it explains that ideas are mental constructs resulting from the appreciation by man of the objective conditio ns surrounding him with the use of his senses. Of the three different answers to the question of where ideas come from, the metaphysical and supernatural points of view share so much in common. Both essentially maintain that ideas are not in any way related to the material world but are results of man’s perspective that is absolutely independent from objective realities. The belief that these are inspiration may just be meant to give credit to the God that he believes in but ultimately, the ideas are still products of his own imaginations. However, a deeper study of the ideas that man can have in relation to the objective conditions that surround and confront him often shows that he is actually influenced by factors that are external to him. It is therefore more accurate to conclude that ideas may come from the internal, particularly the mind, but these are also shaped by external conditions which man may not have control over. Ultimately, the third argument regarding the ori gin of ideas, which is that these are influenced by objective conditions, is the right perspective. The adherents of the metaphysics and the supernatural would insist that the human mind is an object in which inspiration from above or from within would emerge. In Theory of Forms, Plato does not only isolate idea from material world. He actually gave so much importance to ideas while negating the relevance of existence of the material. However, such form of subjectivism actually disregards also the fact that the human senses are also factors for determining the essence of the material and that even before man could label and define a stone as a stone, it was already there. This just means that before the idea, there was already matter. In fact, the human mind itself, which the adherents to metaphysics and the supernatural would say is where ideas are created independently or planted by external beings as inspiration, is matter. Before such inspiration could develop, the mind, which i s material, has to exist first. Without the mind, whether inspired from a divine being or not, no ideas would be created. The mind, therefore, is a key requirement for the creation of ideas. Since the mind is material, this only proves that concrete objective or material conditions exist prior to the development of ideas. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels explained in The German Ideology that â€Å"consciousness is the product of man evolving in natural circumstances, in other words that consciousness has a natural origin† (Bloch 136). This means that man’s ideas can never be isolated from what he observes in his natural surroundings. One principal reason for this is that it is the mind that creates ideas but before such mind performs its task of construction, it first gathers the necessary materials. This

Human sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Human sexuality - Essay Example To be in love is a feeling that comes and passes away after a while. To be in love with someone is often related to romance and relationships. Loving someone, on the other hand, is what one can say sustains a relationship after the infatuation fades away. At this point, one is fully aware of the other person’s flaws and the differences between them and still chooses to stay with them. To love someone is unconditional, like how a mother loves her child that makes her always defend the child no matter what or the general feeling we have for our family. You take the person you love for who they are and will always be there for them no matter what. The feeling of love is something that gradually grows as one gets to know the other person and accept them for whom they truly are. To love someone means that the feeling will never go away. Therefore, this implies  that it is possible to be in love with someone and not love him or her. Alternatively, that you can love someone without necessarily saying you are in love with him or her. Like you can love your dog, but you cannot say that you are in love with your dog. I agree with this statement. In unconditionally self-loving one’s self, one can feel like they truly deserve of the love they get in return from their partners, families or friends. If one were to sit and write down a list of things they want in their partner, you get to realize that it is all the characters you want in yourself. People try to be what they are not in order for other people to think that they are first before you can expect someone to fall in love with you (Collins, 2006). Self-love is all about falling in love with one’s self first, before turning to someone else to share that love with instead of only looking for someone to fill the hole we have in our lives out of feeling unworthy and undeserving of love. Awareness and self-acceptance